The IFS report, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, found air pollution fell dramatically during the pandemic and has remained at lower levels since.

Bobbie Upton, research economist at IFS and an author of the report, said: ‘It is hard to fully explain the striking drop in air pollution that started in 2020, during the Covid pandemic.

‘New clean air zones in several of England's largest cities and reduced steel production may have both played a role. It is important for the nation's health, and for reducing health inequalities, that progress continues to be made on reducing air pollution. The good news for Government is that there are policies, such as supporting research and innovation in electrifying steel production, that both move towards net zero and reduce air pollution.'

The survey found PM2.5 air pollution almost everywhere is now below England's 2040 target, but still falling short of the WHO's recommended limit with levels having halved since 2003.

The research also fond a fall in the ‘ethnic pollution gap' with minorities exposed to 6% higher than average levels than the white population in 2013 compared with 13% in 2003.

This was attributed to ethnic minorities moving to less polluted parts of the country (largely moving out of London to a smaller city). Since 2019, however, areas with large ethnic minority populations (namely London and the Midlands) have experienced substantial decreases in air pollution, further shrinking the gap.

Lower-income areas have also persistently had higher levels of air pollution than richer areas. In 2023, individuals in the top 20% most deprived areas experienced 8% higher average PM2.5 concentrations than those in the bottom 20% with little shift in the gap during the period.